Where does photosynthesis occur?

Question

Where does photosynthesis occur?

Answer 1

well, it depends because there are two kinds of photosynthesis. if it is light reaction photosynthesis, it occurs in the thylakoid of the chloroplast. if it is dark reaction photosynthesis, it occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.

Answer 2

Photosynthesis is a series of enzyme-catalyzed steps for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms. Its initial substrates are carbon dioxide and water; the energy source is light (electromagnetic radiation); and the end-products are oxygen and (energy-containing) carbohydrates, such as sucrose, glucose or starch. This process is arguably the most important biochemical pathway,[1] since nearly all life on Earth either directly or indirectly depends on it. It is a complex process occurring in higher plants, algae, as well as bacteria such as cyanobacteria. Photosynthetic organisms are also referred to as photoautotrophs.[1]

The word comes from the Greek φώτο- (photo-), "light," and σύνθεσις (synthesis), "placing with."

Overview

Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar

Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar

Photosynthesis uses light energy and carbon dioxide to make triose phosphates (G3P). G3P is generally considered the first end-product of photosynthesis.[citation needed] It can be used as a source of metabolic energy, or combined and rearranged to form monosaccharide or disaccharide sugars, such as glucose or sucrose, respectively, which can be transported to other cells, stored as insoluble polysaccharides such as starch, or converted to structural carbohydrates, such as cellulose or glucans.

A commonly used slightly simplified equation for photosynthesis is:

    6 CO2(g) + 12 H2O(l) + photons → C6H12O6(aq) + 6 O2(g) + 6 H2O(l)

    carbon dioxide + water + light energy → glucose + oxygen + water

When written as a word equation, light energy appears above the arrow, as it is required for photosynthesis, but it is not a reactant. Here the monosaccharide, glucose, is shown as a product, although the biosynthetic pathways in plants produce disaccharides.[citation needed]

The equation is often presented in introductory chemistry texts in an even more simplified form as:[2]

    6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l) + photons → C6H12O6(aq) + 6 O2(g)

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or photosynthetic reactions (also called the Light Reactions) capture the energy of light and use it to make high-energy molecules. During the second stage, the light-independent reactions (also called the Calvin-Benson Cycle, and formerly known as the Dark Reactions) use the high-energy molecules to capture and chemically reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) (also called carbon fixation) to make the precursors of carbohydrates.

In the light reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, allowing the start of a flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH. In addition, this creates a proton gradient across the chloroplast membrane; its dissipation is used by ATP Synthase for the concomitant synthesis of ATP. The chlorophyll molecule regains the lost electron from a water molecule through a process called photolysis, which releases a dioxygen (O2) molecule.

In the Light-independent or dark reactions the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO2 from the atmosphere and in a process that requires the newly formed NADPH, called the Calvin-Benson Cycle releases three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch.

Photosynthesis may simply be defined as the conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms. It is affected by its surroundings, and the rate of photosynthesis is affected by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air, the light intensity, and the temperature.

Photosynthesis uses only 1% of the entire electromagnetic spectrum, and 2% of the visible spectrum.[citation needed] It has been estimated that the productivity of photosythesis is 115 petagrams (Pg, equals 1015 grams or 109 metric tons).[citation needed]

[edit] In plants

Most plants are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from inorganic compounds using light energy - for example from the sun, instead of eating other organisms or relying on nutrients derived from them. This is distinct from chemoautotrophs that do not depend on light energy, but use energy from inorganic compounds.

    6 CO2 + 12 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

The energy for photosynthesis ultimately comes from absorbed photons and involves a reducing agent, which is water in the case of plants, releasing oxygen as product. The light energy is converted to chemical energy (known as light-dependent reactions), in the form of ATP and NADPH, which are used for synthetic reactions in photoautotrophs. The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is:[3]

    2 H2O + 2 NADP+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + light → 2 NADPH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + O2

Most notably, plants use the chemical energy to fix carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other organic compounds through light-independent reactions. The overall equation for carbon fixation (sometimes referred to as carbon reduction) in green plants is:[3]

    3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ → C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+ + 3 H2O

To be more specific, carbon fixation produces an intermediate product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The carbon skeletons produced by photosynthesis are then variously used to form other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, as precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration. The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants gets passed through a food chain. Organisms dependent on photosynthetic and chemosynthetic organisms are called heterotrophs. In general outline, cellular respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis: Glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide, water, and chemical energy. However, the two processes take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.

Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll, which is the reason that most plants have a green color. The function of chlorophyll is often supported by other accessory pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls. Both chlorophyll and accessory pigments are contained in organelles (compartments within the cell) called chloroplasts. Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, most of the energy is captured in the leaves. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is uniformly coated with a water-resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating. The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place.

Plants convert light into chemical energy with a maximum photosynthetic efficiency of approximately 6%.[4][5][6] By comparison solar panels convert light into electric energy at a photosynthetic efficiency of approximately 10-20%. Actual plant's photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of CO2 in atmosphere.

[edit] In algae and bacteria

Algae come in multiple forms from multicellular organisms like kelp, to microscopic, single-cell organisms. Although they are not as complex as land plants, the biochemical process of photosynthesis is the same. Very much like plants, algae have chloroplasts and chlorophyll, but various accessory pigments are present in some algae such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae and phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes), resulting in a wide variety of colors. Brown algae and diatoms contain fucoxanthol as their primary pigment. All algae produce oxygen, and many are autotrophic. However, some are heterotrophic, relying on materials produced by other organisms. For example, in coral reefs, there is a mutualistic relationship between zooxanthellae and the coral polyps.[7]

Photosynthetic bacteria do not have chloroplasts (or any membrane-bound organelles). Instead, photosynthesis takes place directly within the cell. Cyanobacteria contain thylakoid membranes very similar to those in chloroplasts and are the only prokaryotes that perform oxygen-generating photosynthesis. In fact, chloroplasts are now considered to have evolved from an endosymbiotic bacterium, which was also an ancestor of cyanobacterium. The other photosynthetic bacteria have a variety of different pigments, called bacteriochlorophylls, and do not produce oxygen. Some bacteria, such as Chromatium, oxidize hydrogen sulfide instead of water for photosynthesis, producing sulfur as waste. All photosynthesizing organisms must be in the photic (light-receiving) zone, except for those near hydrothermal vents which give faint light.

[edit] Evolution

Plant cells with visible chloroplasts.

Plant cells with visible chloroplasts.

The ability to convert light energy to chemical energy confers a significant evolutionary advantage to living organisms. Early photosynthetic systems, such as those from green and purple sulfur and green and purple non-sulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, using various molecules as electron donors. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as an electron donor. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of no